Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy affects people from all walks of life; men, women, athletes, soldiers, abused women and children and people with disabilities. Even if you don’t suffer a concussion, milder, repeated head trauma may eventually result in CTE.
Here are the stories of a few people who have been either diagnosed with CTE or with symptoms consistent with CTE. By sharing their stories we hope we can help you better understand the symptoms and scope of this debilitating condition.
Best-known cases
Frank Gifford
Francis Newton Gifford (August 16, 1930 – August 9, 2015) was an American football player and television sports commentator. After a 12-year playing career as a running back and flanker for the New York Giants of the National Football League (NFL), he was a play-by-play announcer and commentator for 27 years on ABC’s Monday Night Football.
Gifford won the NFL Most Valuable Player Award in 1956, the same season he won his only NFL Championship. During his career, he participated in five league championship games and was named to eight Pro Bowls. He was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1977. After retiring as a player, Gifford was an Emmy Award-winning sportscaster, known for his work on ABC’s Monday Night Football, Wide World of Sports and the Olympics. He was married to television host Kathie Lee Gifford from 1986 until his death on August 9, 2015.
In November 2015, Gifford’s family revealed that he had suffered from chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). The family said, “After losing our beloved husband and father, Frank Gifford, we as a family made the difficult decision to have his brain studied in hopes of contributing to the advancement of medical research concerning the link between football and traumatic brain injury … We decided to disclose our loved one’s condition to honor Frank’s legacy of promoting player safety dating back to his involvement in the formation of the NFL Players Association in the 1950s.”
Ken Stabler
Kenneth Michael “Ken” Stabler (December 25, 1945 – July 8, 2015), nicknamed “Snake,” was an American football quarterback in the National Football League (NFL) for the Oakland Raiders (1970–1979), Houston Oilers (1980–1981) and New Orleans Saints (1982–1984). He played college football for the University of Alabama. Stabler was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2016.
Stabler died of colon cancer on July 8, 2015, at the age of 69. He had been diagnosed with the disease in February 2015. In February 2016, the New York Times reported that researchers at Boston University discovered high Stage 3 chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) in Stabler’s brain after his death. Dr. Ann McKee of Boston University told The Associated Press that the disease was widespread throughout his brain, with “quite severe” damage to the regions involving learning, memory and regulation of emotion.
In 2015, the XOXO Stabler Foundation, a 501(c)(3) nonprofit founded by former NFL quarterback Ken Stabler, took up a cause that directly affected the foundation’s chairman: sports-related brain trauma.
The foundation’s initiative XOXO Game Plan for Change is focused on changing the course and culture of contact sports to increase sports safety and reduce brain trauma in athletes. To facilitate change, the XOXO Stabler Foundation funds research on related brain diseases, methods of treatment and prevention, and educational outreach.
Mike Webster
Mike Webster anchored the Pittsburgh Steelers’ offensive line at center for 15 seasons, winning four Super Bowls, before finishing his career with the Kansas City Chiefs. He was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1997.
After football, Webster struggled with memory loss, confusion and mood changes, and his life became increasingly difficult. He died in 2002 at age 50.
Examining his brain after his death, neuropathologist Dr. Bennet Omalu found the protein buildup that defines chronic traumatic encephalopathy. Published in 2005, it was the first case of CTE reported in a former NFL player, and it opened the door to much of the research that followed.
Source: PBS Frontline
Photo: Webster in 1970, Rhineland High School yearbook (public domain), via Wikimedia Commons.
Junior Seau
Junior Seau was one of the most celebrated linebackers in NFL history. Over 20 seasons with the San Diego Chargers, Miami Dolphins and New England Patriots he was named to 12 Pro Bowls, and he was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2015.
Seau died by suicide in 2012, at age 43. His family donated his brain for study, and in January 2013 researchers at the National Institutes of Health reported that he had CTE. His death and diagnosis drew national attention to the long-term risks of repeated head impacts in football.
Source: PBS Frontline, Jan. 2013
Photo: JJ Hall, 2008, CC BY 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons (cropped). If you or someone you know is struggling, call or text 988 (Suicide & Crisis Lifeline, U.S.).
Owen Thomas
An autopsy conducted in 2010 on the brain of Owen Thomas, a 21-year-old junior lineman at the University of Pennsylvania who died by suicide, showed early stages of CTE, making him the second youngest person to be diagnosed with the condition. The doctors who performed the autopsy indicated that they found no causal connection between the early-stage CTE and his death. There were no records of Thomas missing any playing time due to concussion, but as a player who played hard and “loved to hit people,” Thomas may have played through concussions and received thousands of subconcussive impacts to the brain.
Nathan Stiles
In October 2010, 17-year-old Nathan Stiles died hours after his high school homecoming football game, where he took a hit that would be the final straw in a series of subconcussive and concussive blows to the head. He was later diagnosed with CTE, making him the youngest reported CTE case at the time.
Ryan Freel
Ryan Freel was a promising American professional baseball player. Known as a “utility player,” Freel played second base, third base, and all three outfield positions for teams including the Toronto Blue Jays, Cincinnati Reds, Baltimore Orioles, Chicago Cubs, and Kansas City Royals. Known for winning games at any cost, Freel was a rough-and-tumble player who would charge headfirst into home plate, dive recklessly to catch balls, and put the team ahead of his own well-being.
After six seasons in the minor leagues, Freel made his major league debut on April 4, 2001. In his best year, he hit .277 with 3 home runs, 28 RBI and 37 stolen bases, and scored 74 runs in 143 games for the Reds in 2004. He was well respected for his talent and for his kindness to fans. However, his fearlessness came with drawbacks, as repeated concussions during his career would pose a greater threat than any opposing team.
To Ryan Freel, concussions were just another part of daily life; head injuries were commonplace for him even as a child. On May 28, 2007, he suffered another serious head injury when he collided with another player while diving for a ball, injuring both his neck and head. He returned to play just over a month later. After yet another head injury in 2009 with the Baltimore Orioles, Freel was placed on the disabled list and retired the following year. Struggling with the effects of his head injuries, he died by suicide on December 22, 2012.
A year after his death, researchers at the Boston University School of Medicine diagnosed Freel with chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) after examining his brain tissue.
Sources: CNN · Baseball-Reference
If you or someone you know is struggling, call or text 988 (Suicide & Crisis Lifeline, U.S.) to reach someone who can help.
CTE across sports and service
CTE has been found in hockey and soccer players, rugby and Olympic athletes, women, young athletes and military veterans. Each case below was confirmed after death by a brain bank, neuropathologist or coroner.
Bobby Hull
Diagnosed after his death with stage 2 CTE by Boston University researchers, after his family donated his brain.
Nobby Stiles
A 2026 inquest heard evidence that he had high-stage CTE; the coroner linked it to repeatedly heading the ball.
Steve McMichael
Lived with ALS; diagnosed after his death with stage 3 CTE by Boston University researchers.
Heather Anderson
The first female athlete publicly diagnosed with CTE, confirmed by the Australian Sports Brain Bank.
Wyatt Bramwell
Diagnosed with stage 2 CTE by Boston University, the first case at that stage found in a high school player.
Sgt. Kevin Ash
Exposed to repeated combat blasts in Iraq; diagnosed after his death with CTE by the VA-BU-CLF Brain Bank.
Source: Boston University CTE Center / 60 Minutes, Jan. 2018
Shane Christie
Found to have high-stage CTE in a post-mortem examination at New Zealand’s national brain bank.
Pavle Jovanovic
Boston University researchers found CTE, believed to be the first such finding in a sliding-sport athlete.
Confirmed cases
Every person on this page whose CTE was confirmed after death, newest first. People featured above are included, with a link to their profile or to the report.
- Fred Lorenzen, NASCAR Hall of Fame driver. Stage 3 CTE found by Boston University; the first known case in a NASCAR driver. Concussion & CTE Foundation, Oct. 2026
- Marshawn Kneeland, Dallas Cowboys defensive end. Stage 1 CTE found by Boston University; he was 24. WAFB, July 2026
- Nobby Stiles, England 1966 World Cup winner. A 2026 inquest heard evidence of high-stage CTE; the coroner linked it to repeatedly heading the ball. ESPN, July 2026
- Lyndon Byers, Boston Bruins forward and radio host. Stage 3 CTE found by Boston University’s UNITE Brain Bank. Concussion & CTE Foundation, May 2026
- Steve McMichael, Chicago Bears defensive tackle and Hall of Famer. Stage 3 CTE found by Boston University. Concussion & CTE Foundation, Apr. 2026
- Shane Christie, Māori All Blacks flanker. High-stage CTE found at New Zealand’s national brain bank. The Spinoff, Apr. 2026
- Ricky Hatton, World champion boxer. Inquest evidence showed signs of mild CTE, unusual for his age. Boxing Insider, Mar. 2026
- Gordon McQueen, Scotland, Leeds and Manchester United defender. A coroner found CTE alongside vascular dementia, likely linked to heading. PA Media via Coast, Feb. 2026
- Jon Burnett, Pittsburgh KDKA-TV personality and former Tennessee football player. The University of Pittsburgh’s National Sports Brain Bank found CTE alongside Alzheimer’s disease. CBS News Pittsburgh, Oct. 2025
- Brent Simpson, Charlotte-Mecklenburg police officer. Mild-stage CTE found by Boston University, reported as the first police officer known to have CTE. The New York Times via West Hawaii Today, Sept. 2025
- Adam Hunter, West Coast Eagles AFL premiership player. CTE found by the Australian Sports Brain Bank. The Nightly, Aug. 2025
- Chris Simon, NHL forward and Stanley Cup winner. Stage 3 CTE found by Boston University. Concussion Legacy Foundation, Apr. 2025
- Rob Trumbley, WHL hockey player. University of Toronto researchers confirmed CTE in his donated brain. CBC News, Apr. 2025
- Pat Sullivan, Auburn quarterback and 1971 Heisman Trophy winner. Stage 3 CTE found after his death in 2019. WBRC, Apr. 2025
- Bobby Hull, Chicago Blackhawks star and Hockey Hall of Famer. Stage 2 CTE found by Boston University. Boston University CTE Center, Feb. 2025
- Conrad Dobler, NFL guard and three-time Pro Bowler. Stage 3 CTE found by Boston University. Boston University CTE Center, Feb. 2025
- Frank Wycheck, Tennessee Titans tight end. Stage 3 CTE found by the Boston University CTE Center. WSMV, Jan. 2025
- Joe Kinnear, Tottenham defender and Wimbledon manager. Post-mortem examination reached a diagnosis of CTE. ITV News, June 2024
- Ray Lewis III, College running back, son of Ray Lewis. Stage 2 CTE found by Boston University. Boston University, May 2024
- Billy Guyton, Māori All Blacks halfback. Stage 2 CTE found by New Zealand’s Neurological Foundation brain bank. 1News, Mar. 2024
- Bill Gates, Middlesbrough FC defender (not the Microsoft founder). Post-mortem found CTE at the highest level. Yahoo Sport UK, 2024
- Wyatt Bramwell, Missouri high school football player, 18. Stage 2 CTE found by Boston University, the first at that stage in a high school player. Boston University, Nov. 2023
- Heather Anderson, Adelaide Crows AFLW premiership player. The first female athlete publicly diagnosed with CTE, by the Australian Sports Brain Bank. InDaily, July 2023
- Paul Green, NRL premiership coach and Queensland halfback. Post-mortem found severe CTE. AP via Yahoo News, Oct. 2022
- Demaryius Thomas, Denver Broncos wide receiver. Stage 2 CTE found by Boston University. Concussion & CTE Foundation, July 2022
- Taylor Dever, Notre Dame offensive lineman. Stage 2 CTE found by the VA-BU-CLF Brain Bank about a year after his death in December 2020. The Union (Grass Valley, Calif.)
- Pavle Jovanovic, U.S. Olympic bobsledder. Dr. Ann McKee of Boston University determined he had CTE, believed to be the first case found in an Olympic sliding-sport athlete. AP, Apr. 2021 · USA Today
- Shane Tuck, Richmond AFL midfielder. Stage 3 CTE found by the Australian Sports Brain Bank. ESPN, Jan. 2021
- Danny Frawley, St Kilda AFL captain and coach. Stage 2 CTE found by the Australian Sports Brain Bank. AFL.com.au, 2020
- Steve Folkes, Canterbury-Bankstown player and premiership coach. Post-mortem examination found CTE. Stuff via PressReader, 2019
- Tyler Hilinski, Washington State quarterback. A Mayo Clinic autopsy found stage 1 CTE. FOX 13 Seattle, June 2018
- Sgt. Kevin Ash, U.S. Army Reserve, three deployments. CTE found by the VA-BU-CLF Brain Bank after repeated combat blast exposure in Iraq. Boston University CTE Center / 60 Minutes, Jan. 2018
- Zac Easter, Iowa high school football player. Dr. Bennet Omalu confirmed CTE after his death. WBUR Only A Game, Feb. 2018
- J.T. Davis, SMU offensive lineman, 1950s. Diagnosed after his death with stage 4 CTE (2017); in 2026 a Dallas jury awarded his family $140 million against the NCAA. Athletic Business
- Ty Pozzobon, Canadian professional bull rider. CTE found by University of Washington researchers, the first known case in a bull rider. University of Washington, 2017
- Don Horton, College football offensive line coach. Advanced CTE, between stages 3 and 4, found by Boston University and the Concussion Legacy Foundation in 2017. CNN via KRDO, Aug. 2026
- Kevin Turner, Patriots and Eagles fullback. Most advanced stage of CTE found by Boston University. AP via CBS News, Nov. 2016
- Ken Stabler, Oakland Raiders quarterback and Hall of Famer. High stage 3 CTE found by Boston University (Feb. 2016). Profile above
- Tyler Sash, New York Giants safety and Super Bowl champion. Stage 2 CTE found by Boston University. CBS Sports, Jan. 2016
- Frank Gifford, New York Giants star and Monday Night Football broadcaster. His family announced his CTE diagnosis in Nov. 2015. Profile above
- Steve Montador, NHL defenseman. Widespread CTE found by the Canadian Sports Concussion Project. The Hockey News, May 2015
- Jeff Astle, England and West Brom striker. Re-examination of his brain found CTE, the first known case in a British footballer. Express & Star, June 2014
- Ryan Freel, Major League Baseball utility player. Boston University researchers found CTE (Dec. 2013). Profile above
- Junior Seau, San Diego Chargers linebacker and Hall of Famer. National Institutes of Health researchers found CTE. PBS Frontline, Jan. 2013 · Profile above
- Nathan Stiles, Kansas high school football player, 17. A Boston University study found early signs of CTE, the youngest reported case at the time. Boston Globe, Dec. 2012 · Profile above
- Ralph Wenzel, Steelers and Chargers guard. Advanced CTE found after his death in 2012. The Boston Globe
- Owen Thomas, University of Pennsylvania lineman, 21. Boston University found early-stage CTE (Sept. 2010). Profile above
- Chris Henry, Cincinnati Bengals wide receiver. West Virginia University researchers found CTE. West Virginia University, June 2010
- Paul Pender, world middleweight boxing champion. Dr. Ann McKee found CTE; he had been thought to have Alzheimer’s. BrainLine
- John Grimsley, Houston Oilers and Miami Dolphins linebacker. CTE found by Dr. Ann McKee; the first brain donated to the BU brain bank. Boston University, 2008
- Mike Webster, Pittsburgh Steelers center and Hall of Famer. Dr. Bennet Omalu found CTE, the first case reported in a former NFL player. PBS Frontline · Profile above
Speaking out: living with symptoms
CTE can only be confirmed after death. These public figures have described symptoms they link to repeated head impacts, been told by doctors they have probable CTE, or campaigned for brain-injury research. We do not say that any of them has CTE.
Tony Dorsett
In 2013 he was among the first living former NFL players told an experimental brain scan at UCLA showed signs consistent with CTE. He has described memory loss, getting lost on familiar routes, and mood changes that frightened his family.
Eric Lindros
His career was shortened by repeated concussions. He pledged $5 million to concussion research in 2007 and has pressed the NHL to fund brain-trauma research. He has not said he has CTE.
Paul Wade
In July 2026 he revealed that a neurologist had diagnosed him with probable CTE after more than a year of symptoms, and said he went public to help other players and families.
Ryan Jones
In 2022, at age 41, he revealed a diagnosis of early-onset dementia and probable CTE, and has described short-term memory loss.
Wally Lewis
In 2023 he revealed a diagnosis of probable CTE after memory problems led to testing. His neurologist noted that CTE can only be confirmed after death.
Heather Hardy
She retired after a 2023 bout and has described vision problems and difficulty concentrating. A lawsuit she filed in 2025 says her symptoms are consistent with CTE.
Donald Curry
Diagnosed at the Cleveland Clinic with traumatic encephalopathy syndrome, the clinical condition doctors use for suspected CTE in living people. His family has asked the boxing community for help with his care.
Matt Hasselbeck
He says he feels healthy but knows he is at risk. He is taking part in the NIH-funded study to diagnose CTE during life and has pledged his brain to research.
If you or someone you know is struggling, call or text 988 (Suicide & Crisis Lifeline, U.S.) to reach someone who can help.
